THERE was a miller1 who left no more estate to the three sons2 he had than his mill,3 his ass,4 and his cat.5 The partition was soon made. Neither scrivener6 nor attorney7 was sent for. They would soon have eaten up all the poor patrimony.8 The eldest had the mill, the second the ass, and the youngest nothing but the cat.9 The poor young fellow was quite comfortless at having so poor a lot.

"My brothers," said he, "may get their living handsomely enough by joining their stocks together; but for my part, when I have eaten up my cat,10 and made me a muff of his skin,11 I must die of hunger."

The Cat, who heard all this, but made as if he did not, said to him with a grave and serious air:12

"Do not thus afflict yourself, my good master. You have nothing else to do but to give me a bag13 and get a pair of boots14 made for me that I may scamper through the dirt and the brambles, and you shall see that you have not so bad a portion in me as you imagine."

The Cat's master did not build very much upon what he said. He had often seen him play a great many cunning tricks to catch rats and mice,15 as when he used to hang by the heels, or hide himself in the meal, and make as if he were dead; so that he did not altogether despair of his affording him some help in his miserable condition. When the Cat had what he asked for he booted himself very gallantly, and putting his bag about his neck, he held the strings of it in his two forepaws and went into a warren16 where was great abundance of rabbits. He put bran and sow-thistle into his bag, and stretching out at length, as if he had been dead, he waited for some young rabbits, not yet acquainted with the deceits of the world, to come and rummage his bag for what he had put into it.

Scarce was he lain down but he had what he wanted. A rash and foolish young rabbit jumped into his bag, and Monsieur Puss, immediately drawing close the strings, took and killed him without pity.17 Proud of his prey, he went with it to the palace and asked to speak with his majesty.18 He was shown upstairs into the King's apartment, and, making a low reverence,19 said to him:

"I have brought you, sir, a rabbit of the warren, which my noble lord the Marquis of Carabas"20 (for that was the title which puss was pleased to give his master) "has commanded me to present to your majesty from him."

"Tell thy master," said the king, "that I thank him and that he does me a great deal of pleasure."

Another time he went and hid himself among some standing corn, holding still his bag open, and when a brace of partridges ran into it he drew the strings and so caught them both. He went and made a present of these to the king,21 as he had done before of the rabbit which he took in the warren. The king, in like manner, received the partridges with great pleasure, and ordered him some money for drink.

The Cat continued for two or three months22 thus to carry his Majesty, from time to time, game of his master's taking. One day in particular, when he knew for certain that he was to take the air along the river-side,23 with his daughter, the most beautiful princess in the world,24 he said to his master:

"If you will follow my advice your fortune is made. You have nothing else to do but go and wash yourself in the river, in that part I shall show you, and leave the rest to me."

The Marquis of Carabas did what the Cat advised him to, without knowing why or wherefore. While he was washing the King passed by, and the Cat began to cry out:

"Help! help! My Lord Marquis of Carabas is going to be drowned."

At this noise the King put his head out of the coach- window, and, finding it was the Cat who had so often brought him such good game, he commanded his guards to run immediately to the assistance of his Lordship the Marquis of Carabas. While they were drawing the poor Marquis out of the river, the Cat came up to the coach and told the King that, while his master was washing, there came by some rogues, who went off with his clothes, though he had cried out: "Thieves! thieves!" several times, as loud as he could.

This cunning Cat had hidden them under a great stone. The King immediately commanded the officers of his wardrobe to run and fetch one of his best suits25 for the Lord Marquis of Carabas.

The King caressed him after a very extraordinary manner, and as the fine clothes he had given him extremely set off his good mien (for he was well made and very handsome in his person), the King's daughter took a secret inclination to him, and the Marquis of Carabas had no sooner cast two or three respectful and somewhat tender glances but she fell in love with him to distraction. The King would needs have him come into the coach and take part of the airing. The Cat, quite overjoyed to see his project begin to succeed, marched on before, and, meeting with some countrymen, who were mowing a meadow,26 he said to them:

"Good people, you who are mowing, if you do not tell the King that the meadow you mow belongs to my Lord Marquis of Carabas, you shall be chopped as small as herbs for the pot."27

The King did not fail asking of the mowers to whom the meadow they were mowing belonged.

"To my Lord Marquis of Carabas," answered they altogether, for the Cat's threats had made them terribly afraid.

"You see, sir," said the Marquis,28 "this is a meadow which never fails to yield a plentiful harvest every year."

The Master Cat,29 who went still on before, met with some reapers,30 and said to them:

"Good people, you who are reaping, if you do not tell the King that all this corn belongs to the Marquis of Carabas, you shall be chopped as small as herbs for the pot."

The King, who passed by a moment after, would needs know to whom all that corn, which he then saw, did belong.

"To my Lord Marquis of Carabas," replied the reapers, and the King was very well pleased with it, as well as the Marquis, whom he congratulated thereupon. The Master Cat, who went always before, said the same words to all he met, and the King was astonished at the vast estates of my Lord Marquis of Carabas.

Monsieur Puss came at last to a stately castle, the master of which was an ogre,31 the richest had ever been known; for all the lands which the King had then gone over belonged to this castle. The Cat, who had taken care to inform himself who this ogre was and what he could do, asked to speak with him, saying he could not pass so near his castle without having the honor of paying his respects to him.

The ogre32 received him as civilly as an ogre could do, and made him sit down.#p#

"I have been assured," said the Cat, "that you have the gift of being able to change yourself into all sorts of creatures you have a mind to;33 you can, for example, transform yourself into a lion, or elephant, and the like."

"That is true," answered the ogre very briskly; "and to convince you, you shall see me now become a lion."34

Puss was so sadly terrified at the sight of a lion so near him that he immediately got into the gutter, not without abundance of trouble and danger, because of his boots, which were of no use at all to him in walking upon the tiles. A little while after, when Puss saw that the ogre had resumed his natural form, he came down, and owned he had been very much frightened.

"I have been, moreover, informed," said the Cat, "but I know not how to believe it, that you have also the power to take on you the shape of the smallest animals; for example, to change yourself into a rat or a mouse; but I must own to you I take this to be impossible."

"Impossible!" cried the ogre; "you shall see that presently."

And at the same time he changed himself into a mouse, and began to run about the floor. Puss no sooner perceived this but he fell upon him and ate him up.35

Meanwhile the King, who saw, as he passed, this fine castle of the ogre's, had a mind to go into it. Puss, who heard the noise of his Majesty's coach running over the draw-bridge, ran out, and said to the King:

"Your Majesty is welcome to this castle of my Lord Marquis of Carabas."

"What! my Lord Marquis," cried the King, "and does this castle also belong to you? There can be nothing finer than this court and all the stately buildings which surround it; let us go into it, if you please."

The Marquis gave his hand to the Princess, and followed the King, who went first. They passed into a spacious hall, where they found a magnificent collation,36 which the ogre had prepared for his friends, who were that very day to visit him, but dared not to enter, knowing the King was there. His Majesty was perfectly charmed with the good qualities of my Lord Marquis of Carabas, as was his daughter, who had fallen violently in love with him, and, seeing the vast estate he possessed, said to him, after having drunk five or six glasses:37

"It will be owing to yourself only, my Lord Marquis, if you are not my son-in-law."

The Marquis, making several low bows, accepted the honor which his Majesty conferred upon him, and forthwith, that very same day, married the Princess.38

Puss became a great lord,39 and never ran after mice any more but only for his diversion.40

1.  Miller:  A miller is "one who keeps or attends a flour mill or gristmill" (Webster's 1990). A miller, while not a peasant, would be part of the working class and not the nobility. He would have some property and a few comforts for himself and his family, depending on the success of his mill.

A miller symbolizes greed, habitual and uncreative thinking as well as logic as a feeble protection against passion (Olderr 1986).
Return to place in story.

2. Three sons: Fairy tales often contain three siblings in which the youngest becomes the protagonist. Either the youngest is the most beautiful and worthy--often female protagonists--or the youngest is stupid and lucky--often male protagonists. In either scenario, the youngest achieves good fortune through a lucky adventure and/or magical helper. "It is the modest, the humble, and often the dispossessed who are elevated to noble rank" (Tatar, 2002, 235).

Some variants of the tale, such Giambattista Basile's Gagliuso found in Il Pentamerone, have only two sons, Oratiello and Pippo. Basile's version predates Perrault's version of the tale by several decades. Note that an alternate translation of Gagliuso is Caglioso which is favored by current scholars.
Return to place in story.

3.  Mill:  A mill is "a machine that processes materials by grinding or crushing" (WordNet). The mill would be the primary source of the miller's income.
Return to place in story.

4.  Ass: An ass is a "hardy and sure-footed animal smaller and with longer ears than the horse" (WordNet). The miller would find the ass useful by providing the power to operate his mill. The ass could also be used to deliver the flour produced at the mill.
Return to place in story.

5.  Cat: This tale is classified as Aarne-Thompson 545B: Puss in Boots, but variants of the tale with animal helpers making their owners' fortunes appear around the world. The cat is most popular in parts of Europe, such as France and Norway ("Lord Peter"), but a fox appears in many tales in Italy (Italo Calvino's "Giovanuzza the Fox") and Armenia ("The Miller and the Fox"). In one African variant, the animal helper is a gazelle. You can read more about the variants of the tale on the Tales Similar to Puss in Boots page.

Straparola and Basile's versions of this tale featured a female cat, while Perrault's is male. "In all instances the animal is a common one to all outward appearances, easily obtained by even the poorest peasant. Thus, in this magic world ...anyone could imagine himself married to the princess and living in a big castle, if he could only find the right kind of cat or fox." (Clarkson and Cross 1980, 41). KH
Return to place in story.

6.  Scrivener: A scrivener is "someone employed to make written copies of documents and manuscripts" (WordNet). A scrivener would be used to write up the contract and agreement for the division of the inheritance.
Return to place in story.

7.  Attorney: An attorney is a "professional person authorized to practice law; conducts lawsuits or gives legal advice" (WordNet). An attorney would be used to legally divide up the sons' inheritance.
Return to place in story.

8.  Patrimony: Patrimony is an inheritance coming by right of birth, in past times usually from one's father (WordNet). In England, patrimony was often decided under the English law of primogeniture. Primogeniture is the exclusive right of inheritance which belongs to the eldest son. Thus in England the right of inheriting the estate of the father belongs to the eldest son, leaving the younger children little or no inheritance to support themselves. They would be forced to marry into money or find careers to support themselves.
Return to place in story.

9.  Nothing but the cat: A cat would be useful to the miller for keeping rodents out of the mill. However, a cat would be of small or negligible value and easily replaced in the mill, unlike the ass and the mill itself. The youngest son, as last in line, has surely received the poorest inheritance.
Return to place in story.

10.  Eaten up my cat: In Perrault's version, this is the only reason for the cat to help his new master--the threat of being eaten by him. One doubts the youngest son's ability to outsmart and eat the cat, however. Even the possibility that the cat wanted a comfortable life isn't reasonable since he could have achieved similar results for his former master.

We find better motivation in other variants, such as a Norwegian version of the tale, Lord Peter. In this tale, the cat is an enchanted Princess. She helps the son and then asks him to cut off her head. When he finally agrees to do so, he breaks the enchantment and marries her. Another famous cat story with an enchanted princess is The White Cat, a French tale, by Madame la Comtesse d'Aulnoy.
Return to place in story.

11.  Muff of his skin: A muff is "a warm tubular covering for the hands" (WordNet).
Return to place in story.

12.  Said to him with a grave and serious air: Here, with the introduction of a talking cat, we receive our first hint at the magical elements of the fairy tale. Now we know that this cat has unusual value since it can speak, unlike normal cats.
Return to place in story.

13.  A bag: Puss plans to use the bag in hunting as we will soon see. Bags are useful tools in hunting, although less recognized so today as a weapon with the popularity of guns. Bagging prey requires great planning, speed, and dexterity. Bag, as a verb, has the meaning of to "capture or kill, as in hunting," for example 'to bag game.' As a noun, another definition for bag is "the quantity of game taken in a particular period (usually by one person); 'his bag included two deer'" (WordNet).
Return to place in story.

14.  A pair of boots: Why boots? No reason is given for the cat's request for fancy footwear in Perrault's version of the tale. The two literary variants of the tale that predate Perrault, Straparola's "Constantino Fortunato" and Basile's "Gagliuso," (also know as Caglioso) do not include boots in the story. Perrault's is the first literary version to include the boots. Some scholars believe the boots are not Perrault's invention but came from the French oral sources he had heard. Either way, Perrault's version gained such popularity that it later influenced other oral and literary versions with additions of the boots and the ogre we meet later in the story. In the end, the boots give Puss a sign of distinction and a level of respect. Jack Zipes reminds us that even during the time of this tale that clothes make the person (Zipes 2001, 390).

Illustrators often provide a portrait of Puss in his boots. You can see several illustrators' visions of Puss on the Illustrations of Puss in Boots page. The image is still popular in novelty and gift items today.

Footwear is important in many popular fairy tales, such as Cinderella's slipper, the worn-out shoes in The Twelve Dancing Princesses, and the red hot dancing shoes found in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Seven league boots are popular modes of transportation in folklore and make an appearance on SurLaLune on the Annotations for Sleeping Beauty page.
Return to place in story.

15.  Cunning tricks to catch rats and mice: Maria Tatar, like many scholars, finds questionable morals in this popular tale. She states, "If the tale has any real lesson, it has something to do with inspiring respect for those domestic creatures that hunt mice and look out for their masters" (Tatar 2002, 235). Perhaps Tatar is right, considering that cats are one of the most popular species of domestic pets in the world. The tale's popularity might rest simply on its narrative of a cat's cunning, one of its most endearing traits to cat owners around the world.

The following descriptions of the cat's skill at trickery and hunting will include methods used by real cats, such as playing dead, and methods impossible for real cats, such as hanging by his his heels.
Return to place in story.

16. Warren: A warren is "a colony of rabbits" or "a series of connected underground tunnels occupied by rabbits" (WordNet).
Return to place in story.

17.  Killed him without pity: Fairy tales have two very different moralities, one low and one high. Many romantic fairy tales have high moralities in which the protagonist earns honor, advancement, and riches through compassion, humility, and other types of good behavior. Cinderella and Beauty in Beauty and the Beast provide two such examples.

In contrast, the trickster tales tend towards a lower morality in which cunning and trickery is rewarded, often with wealth that has been essentially stolen from the original owner. Frequently, the trickster directly causes the death of his antagonist in the process of robbing him. Another famous trickster is Jack in Jack and the Beanstalk. Puss is the intelligent alter ego of the youngest son in this tale.

In the end, the cat is simply behaving like a cat, catching and killing its natural prey.
Return to place in story.

18.  Asked to speak with his majesty: For a low ranking subject, gaining an audience with the king is not usually such an easy task, often requiring an appointed time except in the case of an emergency. Puss' skill with diplomacy and words are part of his cunning success.
Return to place in story.

19.  Making a low reverence: Making a low reverence means the cat bowed to the king.
Return to place in story.

20.  Marquis of Carabas: A marquis is a nobleman in various countries such as France, England, and Germany, usually ranking above a count or earl and below a duke. Visit this offsite link to see a table of Hereditary Western European Titles of Nobility.

Jack Zipes offers a few theories behind the name's selection in The Great Fairy Tale Tradition: "The derivation of this name is not certain. It was known through legend that there was a fool in Alexandria who was referred to as Carabas by the inhabitants of the city, and they mocked him by treating him as if he were a king. The Turkish word Carabag designates a beautiful place in the mountains where the sultans and princes would spend the summer months. Perrault might have come upon this term in the Dictionaire oriental, edited by Barthelemy d'Herbelot during this time." (Zipes 2001, 398).
Return to place in story.

21.  Made a present of these to the king: Gift giving has long been a method of gaining favor, such as with a king. Gifts are often presented to sovereigns, dignitaries, and diplomats in hopes of gaining their favor while showing honor to them. Gift giving can also be used to show one's wealth through the costliness of the gift.

According to Maria Tatar, "Perrault's Puss in Boots has been seen as a creature of his time, a cat who models the kind of behavior required to succeed in grand society under Louis XIV in seventeenth-century France" (Tatar 2002, 235).
Return to place in story.

22.  Two or three months: Note the cat's patience and ability to engineer and act upon a long term plan. He gains the king's familiarity and trust before acting upon the next stage of his scheme. Deliberate patience is an important skill in a confidence game or swindle such as this one.
Return to place in story.

23.  To take the air along the river-side: To air in this instance means to "expose to cool or cold air so as to cool or freshen" (WordNet). In other words, the king and his daughter are going for a ride to enjoy the fresh air, a soothing activity especially before the modern era of good ventilation and frequent bathing.
Return to place in story.

24.  Most beautiful princess in the world: Beauty often represents goodness, worthiness, privilege, and wealth in fairy tales. Princesses are especially expected to be beautiful. Physical beauty is often considered to represent inner beauty in folklore.
Return to place in story.

25.  Fetch one of his best suits: Once again, clothes make the man. Puss resorts to more trickery to gain grand apparel for the youngest son. In other versions of the tale, such as Basile's "Gagliuso," (also know as Caglioso), the cat arrives at the castle before a scheduled appointment announcing that the Marquis' servants have stolen all of his clothing. The king then sends a wardrobe to the Marquis. Once the youngest son appears in the king's own majestic clothing, he cannot be recognized as a lowly commoner.
Return to place in story.

26.  Who were mowing a meadow: Before the invention of mechanical mowers, farm workers, also known as mowers, would work in the fields to cut down grass, usually with scythes.
Return to place in story.

27.  You shall be chopped as small as herbs for the pot: While colorful, it's hard to imagine Puss' ability to fufill this threat to the mowers and reapers. In earlier versions of the tale (and many later ones), Puss tells the people--and sometimes animals--he meets to tell the approaching king (or the king's servants) that the land belongs to the Marquis in order to save themselves from an invading army or bunch of marauding thieves.
Return to place in story.#p#

28.  Said the Marquis: Note the son's ability to follow-up on the cat's schemes. He knows the right words and behavior to convince the king and princess of his nobility. It also makes him the accessory as well as benefactor of the cat's schemes.
Return to place in story.

29.  The Master Cat: The original French is Le maitre chat. "Perrault uses the French familiar term maitre, which referred to someone whose social standing was not very high. At the same time, he is playing with the word and using it in the sense of a teacher as master who instructs a young man and determines the events in the story." (Zipes 2001, 397).
Return to place in story.

30.  Reapers: A reaper is "someone who helps to gather the harvest," usually a food crop (WordNet).
Return to place in story.

31.  Stately castle, the master of which was an ogre: In some versions of the tale, the cat finds a castle whose owner is away. He quickly outwits the guards and then gains admittance for the Marquis and his bride. The former owner inexplicably dies while away and never returns to claim his property. In other versions, the Marquis quickly buys property with the money he receives as a dowry.
Return to place in story.

32.  The ogre: The addition of the ogre and the magic surrounding his demise is another difference in Perrault's tale from older European versions. An ogre is defined as "a giant or hideous monster of folklore...often given to eating human flesh, and characterized by extreme stupidity... The word ogre is said to have first been used by Perrault in his Contes, though the ogre himself, according to Gaston Paris, is a descendant of the Italian rackshasas. The word may be from the Italian ogro for orgo or orco, monster, demon, in turn from the Latin Orcus, god of Hades. (Leach 1949, 816). KH
Return to place in story.

33.  Change yourself into all sorts of creatures you have a mind to: Shapeshifting is a common motif in folklore and found in almost every culture around the world, often attributed to gods and mythical creatures, but sometimes practiced by humans.
Return to place in story.

34.  Lion: The ogre probably chooses the form of a large, predatory feline to impress the smaller cat before him. Lions are also exotic beasts in France.
Return to place in story.

35.  He fell upon him and ate him up: The cat tricks the gullible ogre into transforming into small prey so he can easily kill him. Ogres and giants are often easily outwitted in fairy tales by tricksters, such as in The Brave Little Tailor. In other versions of the tale, the cat convinces the ogre to hide, such as in an oven, and then burns him up like the witch in Hansel and Gretel.
Return to place in story.

36.  Magnificent collation: A collation is "a light informal meal" (WordNet). The collation may be Perrault's own invention.
Return to place in story.

37.  After having drunk five or six glasses: The implication is that the king's good will has been increased with an abundance of alcohol while his critical thinking has been adversely affected. He fails to be cynical of the perfect circumstances.
Return to place in story.

38.  Married the Princess: Happy fairy tale endings, especially romantic fairy tales, usually require a royal marriage. Note the French salon influence upon Perrault, however. He states a few times in the story that the princess has fallen madly in love with the Marquis and wants the marriage herself. The fairy tales written in the French Salons often explored the circumstances and conditions in marriages, especially deploring arranged marriages.
Return to place in story.

39.  Puss became a great lord: Basile's version of this tale, Cagliuso (also known as Gagliuso), makes a social commentary about court life and ends much differently than Perrault's. Cagliuso betrays his cat after she pretends to die, and throws her out a window rather than placing her in a golden coffin, as he had promised. Basile's tale "parodies the social dynamics usually at the heart of the fairy tale,...exemplified just as much by the lack of gratitude toward the helper cat...as by the ridiculous figure of Cagliuso, to whose new noble title corresponds no such noble spirit. The extratextual comments on Cagliuso...stress the prevalence of ingratitude in society at large, and, in particular in the world of the courts." (Canepa 1999, 146). KH
Return to place in story.

40.  Never ran after mice any more but only for his diversion: Puss, like a true nobleman, now enjoys hunting for the sport, instead of the necessity. He has become a cat of leisure, just like his master. For the lower classes, this would be a very happy ending.
Return to place in story.